Names and labels have meaning. Key issues in analysing films are the causes and contradictions, often assumed, that motivate the characters and drive forward the narrative. One area of cinema where there is often confusion is in dramas that deal with the oppression, even occupation, found in countries dominated by the advanced capitalist states.
The latter are often addressed as the ‘West’ whilst the former are often ‘addressed as ‘the Global South’ or also ‘The Third World’. All sorts of rationales are provided for these wars; some of them are downright mendacious, as with ‘self-defence’, or wars on ‘terror’. The actual international social relations involved are colonialism, which despite the common use of ‘post-colonial’ continues close to home in that part of occupied Ireland; and elsewhere is places such as occupied Palestine or the US occupied part of Cuba known as Guantanamo. Earlier colonial projects have morphed in many cases into neo-colonialism; as with the French economic, military and political activities in what was once termed Francophone Africa. And both these are continuing tendencies in the dominant mode of imperialism in the contemporary world, dominated by the USA alliance and depending fundamentally on economic hegemony, supported by political and [sometimes] military activity. The US alliance includes much of Europe and also Japan just as the ‘global south’ includes countries north of the equator.
Subtler variants often appear and some of terms have a partial accuracy. Thus, in Jack Benjamin’s review of Souvenir Souvenir, we get a reference to ‘White Western’ values. The major colonial epoch was indeed carried out by predominately European states with predominately white populations. However, the terms of ‘white’ and its opposition ‘black’ are rather crude uses. Europe contained and contains a multitude of ethnic mixes; and it contains minority populations who stemmed from beyond Europe. It was the states’ pursuit of exploitation that drove colonialism and developed the values that included consciousness regarding white and black.
The values about whiteness embodied in what is known as ‘White Supremacy’ and clearly colonial exploitation rested to a degree on myths of white superiority. But these developed as part of the system of exploitation beyond Europe: the documentary series Exterminate All the Brutes, produced for Home Box Office by Raul Peck, has informative material on this.
A more sophisticated variant of the idea of White Supremacy is Eurocentrism. This, like ideology, is used with a variety of meanings, but is best defined by the Marxist scholars and activists Joseph Needham and Samir Amin.
“The critique of Eurocentrism as constituting a definite ideological form first arose within the Marxist tradition. It was introduced by Needham in ‘Within the Four Seas’ and was later employed by Amin in the preface to the first edition of his Eurocentrism. For both Needham and Amin, Eurocentrism is defined as the notion that European culture is the universal culture to which all other cultures must conform, given that non-Western cultures are reduced simply to being particular cultures. As Needham argued, “The basic fallacy of Eurocentrism is therefore the tacit assumption that because modern science and technology, which grew up indeed in post-Renaissance Europe, are universal, everything else European is universal also.” Likewise, Amin writes: “Eurocentrism…claims that imitation of the Western model by all peoples is the only solution to the challenges of our time.” Eurocentrism both projects itself as the universal culture and rejects the true universalism of peoples.”
The argument that a set of values are based on a society and in its social relation is a better way of identifying how sets of ideas relate to sets of practices. The basis of both ideas and practices are the dominant class; what Gramsci called hegemony. Not because of ‘false consciousness’ in other classes [not a Marxist concept], but because the dominant class control of the superstructure, the sets of laws, regulations, institutions, even customs in a given society. Thus, in modern capitalist societies like the USA or Britain, the representatives of the ruling class include people categorised as non-white or black. Thus, a good example is in the United Nations where the two US representatives exercising the US veto on a ceasefire in Israel’s war against the Palestinians are both African-Americans. As I noted in my own review of Souvenir Souvenir, then, it would be incorrect to talk about the ways racism manifests itself, while overlooking the class relations also at play.
Of course, such token figures do not mean an end to the racism which is another facet of modern capitalism. Isabel Wilkerson’s book ‘The Origins of Our Discontent’ is full of examples of how contemporary US racism affects African Americans, even members who are part of the dominant class. She sets out how the terms ‘black’ and ‘white’ have had their meanings altered and developed as new groups of migrants join the dominant class and while ever stricter laws against slaves and ex-slaves introduce more minutiae. Gangs of New York (2002) recounts the battle between different white groups in the C19th over who is a citizen; the earlier Shadows (1958) addresses gradations of blackness. Unfortunately, Wilkerson attributes the ‘discontents’ to caste rather than class; and caste appears as a trait in human societies without an analysis of what type of social relations cause it. The same misnomer is found in the film biopic ‘inspired by the book, Origin (2023). This film follows the life and career of Wilkerson as she researches and the writes her study. Like the book the film offers numerous anecdotes or brief stories of the operation of ‘race’ in contemporary USA. The film, as is so often the case when dealing with ideas and analyses, simplifies the book but does make the case for the oppressive operation of US culture and economy.
These types of contradictions can be seen operating in recent films from both the mainstream and independent film sectors.
City of Hope, USA 1991
This film was written and directed by John Sayles, whose record of independent films include Matewan (1987) and Lone Star (1996). This complex drama has around twelve leading characters and a narrative that binds together a series of events in a way that mainstream US films rarely attempt. Set in an unnamed Eastern city over a few days it brings together the contradictions of class, ethnicity, gender and even sexual orientation. The complexities of the plot are unnecessary here but Wikipedia sets out the main points in the film’s narrative. Introducing the film’s central characters brings out the contradictions at work.
Joe Rinaldi (Tony Lo Bianco) owns a construction company and some rundown apartment blocks; he has to come to arrangements with the city council, union officials and criminal groups in order to keep profitable. Nick Rinaldi (Vincent Spano) is his son still living under the shadow of his elder brother who died in Vietnam; he is drifting into drug taking and petty crime. Wynn (Joe Morton) is an African-American Alderman [similar to a British councillor]; his middle-class lifestyle creates a gap between him and his working-class constituents and he is under pressure from more radical black activists. Carl (John Sayles) owns a garage but is also a small-time criminal who is used by local officials for illegitimate actions. Asteroid (David Strahairn) is a homeless man suffering from some sort of mental ailment; he acts as a sort of Greek chorus on the actions and characters. Rizzo (Tony Denison) is a policeman working in a patrol car: he is volatile and is overwrought about his ex-wife Angela. Angela (Barbara Williams) works in a restaurant and cares for her baby son, who has some sort of disability; she becomes the object of Nick’s attentions. Mayor Baci (Louis Zorich) is up for re-election: he pins his hopes on a new condominium development which will attract investment into the city: it is he that delivers the title line ‘City of hope’. Desmond is an African-American teenager who is arrested after an attack on a white teacher in a local park: Desmond and his companion try to divert the charge by claiming that the teacher ‘came on at them’: Desmond and his single mother live in Rinaldi’s run-down apartment block. And several aides to the leaders also forward events.
This is a deadly ethnic mix; with a range of European ethnic groups: African-Americans: and Latin Americans. The city hierarchy is dominated by European ethnic characters, and the city’s history includes Tammany style politics by both Irish and Jewish communities. The spiralling set of events downward are propelled both by personal interactions but also by the interaction between business and the city administration; especially with regard to housing. The mayor’s hoped for investment is expected to come not only from New York but also, abroad, Japan. Alongside the criminality are found corruption, venality and secretive plotting. The contradictions between ethnic groups and the impact of criminal acts leads to a tragic climax. Some of the leading characters emerge compromised but, in some way, successful; some just survive. But other suffer fatal consequences. Several characters by the end repeat the line,
‘We need help’.
and this includes Asteroid, who is the final lone character seen and heard by the audience.
Sayles’ film enjoys excellent cinematography, location work, editing and music. These maintain the momentum which, at times, is rapid. What emerges is a sophisticated narrative where characters motivation and actions are determined by a complex interaction of class, ethnicity and gender: avoiding the simplistic binary oppositions often found in mainstream film.
The Mauritanian, Britain / USA 2021.
This mainstream movie is an adaptation of the book “Guantánamo Diary” by Mohamedou Ould Slahi. Slahi was arrested in Mauritania at the instigation of the US, transported to Jordan where he was interrogated and tortured and then transported to the Guantanamo camp in occupied Cuba. Here he was interrogated, tortured and forced to sign a false confession. The book initially had large parts censored before publication. A later edition filled in the gaps and the editor included published records and reports which supported Slahi’s record. He himself was finally released though he never received an apology or admission of false imprisonment. His final release was mainly due to the work of a human rights lawyer who was able to unearth evidence of the US military and CIA interrogations and torture.
The film had several screenwriters and was directed by Kevin Macdonald. One of his well-known earlier films is One Day in September (1999), a documentary style treatment of the massacre at the Munich Olympics in 1972. Whilst it includes interview material with a surviving member of Black September, the film does not address the Palestinian struggle that motivated the attack.
The Mauritanian at time has the feel of a documentary but it is a dramatisation of Slahi’s record in the book. Moreover, it fictionalises the story. One important change is in the presentation of the legal narrative. In Slahi’s book, and in actuality, a military defence lawyer, Lieutenant Colonel Stuart Couch (Benedict Cumberbatch), was assigned to a prosecution of Slahi (Tahar Rahim) but then resigned when he discovered that the testimony was the result of torture. Later, the human rights lawyer, Nancy Hollander (Jodie Foster) takes up Slahi’s case. In the film the two legal actions are presented as taking place at the same time; the falsification seems to have been written in order to have a meeting between Couch and Hollander at which he gives her some indirect information regarding evidence.
The change in the film that is relevant to the issue here is the ethnic identity of US interrogators and guards. We do see the interrogators. The FBI interrogators appear friendly and relatively courteous; clearly trying to establish a relationship with Slahi that will lead him to admit something incriminating. Slahi remains resolute in refusing this. One is an African-American but Slahi records in the Diary that none of his interrogators were black, only some of the guards. The reason for the change is likely the need felt by US film industry for ethnic casting as part of the chosen representations. But this also avoids the way that class and racism intersect.
And Slahi in the film is presented as isolated from other prisoners. Yet, in fact, the Diary records frequent interaction between the prisoners held in Guantanamo. Slahi records a greater amount of interaction between inmates than depicted in the movie. They were able to talk to each other in their cells. There was an organised hunger strike at one point over religious observances.
Whilst the film does present Slahi’s story and experiences the drama in the film relies to quite an extent on the legal narrative, ands some key moments of drama resolve round Couch’s and Hollanders actions. The film also down plays the role of the Mauritanian state in assisting the US rendition of Slahi. As he records, he was initially flown to Jordan where he was interrogated and tortured on behalf of the US. In the film we see him arrive from Mauritania at Guantanamo. This downplays the role of subordinate states, with majority black populations, in carrying out US policies. As is the case with other films the class dimension of US governance and policy is not addressed.
The Old Oak, Britain (2023)
This is a rather different treatment of people moving or being moved from the effects of violence and wars directed by Ken Loach’s. Loach’s films, written by Paul Laverty, are independent and much closer to documentary and actuality than a film like The Mauritanian. The Old Oak opens with a group of Syrian refugees bussed into a run-down ex-mining village in the North East. The refugees seemed to have assigned to empty housing in the village, though we never see or hear either local and national government members. The initial response of the local population is anger and resentment. The village is clearly in a parlous state, with boarded up houses, closed shops and an entire absence of commercial or state facilities found in more prosperous areas.
The film uses one particular setting in the drama, the sole surviving public house which just about staggers on with a small regular clientele. The publican is ‘TJ’ Ballantyne (Dave Turner), who is something of local activist as well. The key member of the Syrian group is Yara (Ebla Mari) who treasures an 35mm camera which belonged to her father, still held captive in a prison camp. Two things start to break down barriers between the Syrian refugees and local people. One is Yara’s interest in photography, which she taught herself in a refugee camp. She takes photographs of the locals, both at work and at leisure. The other is a disused room at the public house; it was a centre in the 1984 miners’ strike, the failure of which decimated this and other villages in the region. There are still photographs on the wall from the days of the strike. And in a fine sequence Yara’s photographs of the locals are screened in the room, accompanied by music on a Syrian oud. The sequence dramatises the growing relationship between white locals and black Syrians. And a communal lunchtime cafe is launched; a facility that once operated during the miners’ strike. This empathy is reinforced when locals bring flowers to Yara’s house when she receives the news that her father has died in the prison camp.
Not all the locals are converted to sympathy and friendship with the Syrians. A defiant group of pub users remain antagonistic. However, the unity that has grown up is symbolised in the film’s ending when a combined group of indigenous residents and newly resident Syrians join together at the Durham Miners’ Gala with their own home-made banner.
Here class trumps racism.
Lo Capitano, Italy / Belgium / France (2023)
Another movie about migrants currently on release, (the title isliterally ‘Me Captain’), a European co-production, [filmed in Morocco with Wolof / French / Arabic / English and with English subtitles]. The film was directed by Matteo Garrone, whose previous films include the highly praised Gomorrah (2008) and Dogman (2018). The initial idea for the drama was Garrone’s but he worked with several scriptwriters and developed stories by writers including some who journeyed from Africa to Europe on the migration routes and accounts by African migrants in Italy.
The film’s narrative has been described as ‘Homeric’. It follows two teenage boys from Dakar in Senegal, Seydou (Seydou Sarr) and Moussa (Moustapha Fall), who journey illegally to Europe. Their journey takes them through Mali and Niger to Libya, crossing borders with fake passports. On the way they are brutalised and exploited by smugglers, the military and mafia-type gangs. Somehow surviving these travails, they finally have to attempt to cross the Mediterranean in an old and crowded vessel which has no proper crew or engineers. The only possible help is a phone with GPS and the telephone number of what appears to be that of a refugee or migrant help agency.
The depiction of their journey is at times harrowing; most of the time it is also quite realist but there are also two sequences in magical realist style. The entire visible cast, which seems to include actual migrants, is indigenous African and Black; though the latter covers a wide range of skin tones. Whilst other migrants are supportive the smugglers, state officials and criminal gangs are violent, ruthless and with little regard for the people they exploit. The only Europeans we meet is a voice on the telephone, which might be white or black; and on the screens of mobile devices. And in a trope that dates back at least to Goya, Europeans are unseen on oil rigs or hidden inside a helicopter.
The film has been rightly praised and the cast in particular are impressive. The locations, actually filmed in Morocco, are convincing, often beautiful but also stark, with excellent cinematography whilst the editing drives the narrative forward. There is a fine music track of African songs.
Beneath the surface the travails of Seydou and Moussa are due to the racist immigration policies of Europe. We only know about these as reflected in the words and actions of the officials and gangs. But the violence and extortion by the latter is as a result of the policies of the Europeans. Black Africans have become sub-contractors to an industry that on one hand provides the cheap labour in short supply in European markers whilst at the same time paying obeisance to the European fear of the ‘other’. White racism is clearly a factor in this story but it is one that relies on a multi-ethnic collaboration in the interest of capital.
Most mainstream films reflect the surface realities of contemporary societies, rarely delving into the underlying social relations. Thus, we get stories about the ‘West’ versus the ‘South’; or about the conflict between ‘white’ and ‘black’. Independent and more radical films frequently delve beneath the surface to address the real contradictions driving forward social conflicts. The filmmakers John Sayles and Ken Loach have track records of films that seek to bring to the surface the actual social relations in their respective societies.
And films from the oppressed peoples and nations do this regularly; in colonial and neo-colonial situations the instruments of exploitation and oppression are clear to see. One example would be the films of Med Hondo, several of which have been restored and made available by the World Cinema Foundation. Soleil Ô (1970) explores the experiences of African migrants on the receiving end of French racism. West Indies (1979) dramatises the history of slavery in relation to migration by ex-slaves to France and the continuing racism. Whilst Sarraounia (1986) reaches back into colonial history and the resistance to the French military expedition by an African warrior Queen.
These films take more effort to discover at cinemas, festivals, on discs or streamed but they definitely repay the effort. And they provide a proper analytical representation of the imperialism operating globally today.